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font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;} </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:shapedefaults v:ext="edit" spidmax="1026"/> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:shapelayout v:ext="edit"> <o:idmap v:ext="edit" data="1"/> </o:shapelayout></xml><![endif]--> </head> <body lang=EN-US link=blue vlink=purple style='tab-interval:.5in' onload="MM_preloadImages('home_on.gif','teacher_on.gif','researcher_on.gif','lab_on.gif','publications_on.gif','community_on.gif','cv_on.gif','contact_on.gif')"> <div class=WordSection1> <p class=style1 align=center style='margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:center'>&nbsp;<o:p></o:p></p> <div align=center> <table class=MsoNormalTable border=0 cellpadding=0 width=840 style='width:8.75in; mso-cellspacing:1.5pt;mso-yfti-tbllook:1184'> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:0;mso-yfti-firstrow:yes;mso-row-margin-right:141.75pt'> <td width=634 style='width:475.5pt;padding:.75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt'> <h1 style='margin-top:0in;word-spacing:0in'><span style='font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Arial",sans-serif;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; color:red'><span style='mso-no-proof:yes'><img width=14 height=14 id="_x0000_i1034" src=gdot.gif></span></span><span style='font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Arial",sans-serif;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; color:green'>Major Research Areas</span><span style='mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></h1> <p style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:.5in; margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1;tab-stops: list .5in;word-spacing:0in'><![if !supportLists]><span style='font-size:10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:Symbol;mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif'><a href="#Otoimmunology"><span class=SpellE>Otoimmunology</span> of inner ear diseases of unknown causes</a> (1986-1993)</span></b> <o:p></o:p></p> <p style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:.5in; margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1;tab-stops: list .5in;word-spacing:0in'><![if !supportLists]><span style='font-size:10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:Symbol;mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif'><a href="#Otoacoustic">Otoacoustic emissions and peripheral processing</a> (1988-1994)</span></b> <o:p></o:p></p> <p style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:.5in; margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1;tab-stops: list .5in;word-spacing:0in'><![if !supportLists]><span style='font-size:10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:Symbol;mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif'><a href="#Cortical">Cortical mechanisms for sound localization</a> (1992-1999)</span></b> <o:p></o:p></p> <p style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:.5in; margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1;tab-stops: list .5in;word-spacing:0in'><![if !supportLists]><span style='font-size:10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:Symbol;mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif'><a href="#External-ear">External-ear transfer function</a> (1999-2000)</span></b> </p> <ul type=disc> <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a href="#Cochlear_implants">Cochlear implants</a> (1999-present</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>)<o:p></o:p></span></li> <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; color:blue'><a href="#Cochlear_implants">Speech Perception</a></span></b><b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'> (2002-present)</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li> <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; color:blue'><a href="#Cochlear_implants">Nonlinear frequency compression</a></span></b><b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'> (2015-present)</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li> </ul> </td> <td style='mso-cell-special:placeholder;border:none;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in' width=189><p class='MsoNormal'>&nbsp;</td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:1;mso-yfti-lastrow:yes'> <td width=634 style='width:475.5pt;padding:.75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=192 style='width:2.0in;padding:.75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>&nbsp; <o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> </table> </div> <div class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-no-proof:yes'> <hr size=2 width="50%" noshade style='color:green' align=center> </span></div> <div align=center> <table class=MsoNormalTable border=0 cellpadding=0 width="90%" style='width:90.0%;mso-cellspacing:1.5pt;mso-yfti-tbllook:1184'> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:0;mso-yfti-firstrow:yes'> <td width="100%" style='width:100.0%;padding:.75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt'> <p><a name=Otoimmunology></a><span class=SpellE><span style='mso-bookmark: Otoimmunology'><b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif'>Otoimmunology</span></b></span></span><span style='mso-bookmark:Otoimmunology'><b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif'> of inner ear diseases of unknown causes:</span></b></span><b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif'>&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif'>Autoimmune sensorineural hearing loss refers to an entity of inner-ear diseases that the causes may be attributed to autoimmune responses in the inner ear (McCabe, 1979). In a clinical research project carried out in <a href="http://trhos.com/" target="_blank">Beijing <span class=SpellE>Tongren</span> Hospital</a>/Beijing Institute of Otorhinolaryngology, China, we performed immunologic tests in a group of patients with Meniere's disease and identified a subgroup of patients in whom abnormal immune reactivities might be associated with the etiology of the disease (Xu et al., 1989; 1990).&nbsp; In another project carried out in <a href="https://www.unibas.ch/en.html" target="_blank">University of Basel</a>, Switzerland, the genetics of a group of 42 Caucasian patients with inner ear diseases was studied using HLA (Human Leukocyte Antigens) typing techniques. Those patients were suspected of an autoimmune etiology because all had positive serum antibodies against in the inner ear structures as detected by an immunofluorescence assay. Our results did not reveal a positive correlation between the HLA types and the inner-ear diseases (Xu et al., 1993). </span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:1;mso-yfti-lastrow:yes'> <td width="100%" style='width:100.0%;padding:.75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt'> <p align=right style='text-align:right'>&nbsp;</p> </td> </tr> </table> </div> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";display:none;mso-hide:all'><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p></span></p> <div align=center> <table class=MsoNormalTable border=0 cellpadding=0 width="90%" style='width:90.0%;mso-cellspacing:1.5pt;mso-yfti-tbllook:1184'> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:0;mso-yfti-firstrow:yes'> <td width="100%" style='width:100.0%;padding:.75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt'> <p><a name=Otoacoustic><b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif'>Otoacoustic emissions and peripheral processing</span></b></a><b><span style='font-family: "Arial",sans-serif'>:&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif'>Measuring otoacoustic emissions (OAEs ) is part of standard audiological assessment today. However, we had to struggle to establish the technique of OAE measurements in Beijing many years ago (Xu et al., 1989). Besides, an innovated technique of measuring OAE <span class=SpellE>cochleogram</span> evoked with bone-conducted stimulation was also developed, which had potential clinical applications (Xu et al., 1991). Research in OAEs continued in <a href="http://www.unibas.ch" target="_blank">University of Basel</a>, Switzerland, where we studied suppression of the distortion production 2f1-f2 otoacoustic emission (Harris et al., 1992). In another project, multiple tone-burst were used as stimuli to evoke OAEs. This project helped us to understand the peripheral analysis of frequency in human ears (Xu et al. 1994). </span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:1;mso-yfti-lastrow:yes'> <td width="100%" style='width:100.0%;padding:.75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt'> <p align=right style='text-align:right'>&nbsp;</p> </td> </tr> </table> </div> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";display:none;mso-hide:all'><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p></span></p> <div align=center> <table class=MsoNormalTable border=0 cellpadding=0 width="90%" style='width:90.0%;mso-cellspacing:1.5pt;mso-yfti-tbllook:1184'> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:0;mso-yfti-firstrow:yes'> <td width="100%" style='width:100.0%;padding:.75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt'> <p><a name=Cortical><b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif'>Cortical mechanisms for sound localization</span></b></a><b><span style='font-family: "Arial",sans-serif'>:&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif'>In a set of experiments,&nbsp;we have demonstrated that the spike patterns of auditory cortical neurons carry information about sound-source location (Middlebrooks, et al., 1994; 1998). My focus was on testing the sensitivity of cortical neurons to sound location in the median vertical plane, where interaural difference cues are negligible and spectral cues are dominant. The studies involved multichannel extracellular recording of units in the <span class=SpellE>nontonotopic</span> auditory cortex (area AES and A2) of anesthetized cats. Artificial neural network was employed to recognize spike patterns. Fairly accurate performance of the neural network was achieved in classifying patterns elicited by broadband noise (Xu et al., 1998), indicating information about sound location is carried by the spike patterns of cortical neurons. We further explored, for the first time, the physiological basis for spatial illusion elicited by spectrally-manipulated noise. We showed that spike patterns of cortical neurons systematically <span class=SpellE>mislocalized</span> sounds that have been passed through a narrowband filter. Both correct and incorrect locations signaled by the neurons could be predicted quantitatively by a model of spectral processing (Xu et al, 1999; 2000).&nbsp;</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:1;mso-yfti-lastrow:yes'> <td width="100%" style='width:100.0%;padding:.75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt'> <p align=right style='text-align:right'>&nbsp;</p> </td> </tr> </table> </div> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";display:none;mso-hide:all'><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p></span></p> <div align=center> <table class=MsoNormalTable border=0 cellpadding=0 width="90%" style='width:90.0%;mso-cellspacing:1.5pt;mso-yfti-tbllook:1184' height=188> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:0;mso-yfti-firstrow:yes;height:130.0pt'> <td width="100%" style='width:100.0%;padding:.75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; height:130.0pt'> <p><a name=External-ear><b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif'>External-ear transfer function</span></b></a><b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif'>:&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif'>As sound passes from a free-field source to the ear canal, its spectrum is transformed by the interaction with the head and external ear. Such an external-ear transfer function varies with the angle of incidence of sound, so the spectrum of the sound in the ear canal carries directional information. Our study indicated that the individual differences in the external-ear transfer function of cats were no smaller than those found in human (Middlebrooks, 1999; Xu and Middlebrooks, 2000). Thus, caution should be exerted in interpreting results obtained with <span class=SpellE>nonindividualized</span> transfer function (e.g., virtual auditory space) in behavioral and physiological studies of sound localization.</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:1;mso-yfti-lastrow:yes;height:52.0pt'> <td width="100%" style='width:100.0%;padding:.75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; height:52.0pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> </table> </div> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";display:none;mso-hide:all'><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p></span></p> <div align=center> <table class=MsoNormalTable border=0 cellpadding=0 width="90%" style='width:90.0%;mso-cellspacing:1.5pt;mso-yfti-tbllook:1184' height=508> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:0;mso-yfti-firstrow:yes;height:20.0pt'> <td width="100%" style='width:100.0%;padding:.75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; height:20.0pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><a name="Cochlear_implants"><b><span style='font-family: "Arial",sans-serif;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Cochlear implants:&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></b></a><span style='mso-bookmark:Cochlear_implants'><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Cochlear implant research has been our recent area of research. The goals of our research are to understand the mechanisms of electrical hearing and to identify ways to improve the function of auditory prostheses.&nbsp;A number of studies have been carried out at </span></span><a href="http://www.khri.med.umich.edu/" target="_blank"><span style='mso-bookmark: Cochlear_implants'><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif;mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"'>Kresge Hearing Research Institute</span></span><span style='mso-bookmark:Cochlear_implants'></span></a><span style='mso-bookmark: Cochlear_implants'><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif;mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"'> to study various factors that affect electrical hearing from detection to more complicated psychometric functions to speech perception (<span class=SpellE>Pfingst</span> et al., 2001;&nbsp; Franck, Xu and <span class=SpellE>Pfingst</span>, 2002; <span class=SpellE>Pfingst</span> and Xu, 2004; <span class=SpellE>Pfingst</span>, Xu and Thompson, 2004; <span class=SpellE>Pfingst</span> and Xu, 2005; Xu et al., 2005, <span class=SpellE>Pfingst</span> et al. 2007, 2008). Another approach to study speech perception in cochlear implants is to utilize acoustic simulations of cochlear implants (e.g., Shannon et al., 1995). Using such simulations, we have studied tone perception (Xu et al., 2002; ) and English phoneme recognition (Xu, Thompson and <span class=SpellE>Pfingst</span>, 2005; Xu and Zheng, 2007; Xu &amp; <span class=SpellE>Pfingst</span>, 2008). Tone perception, a crucial aspect of speech perception in tone languages (e.g., Chinese, Thai, etc.), as well as music perception (Wang W. et al., 2011), presents challenges for cochlear implants. In another series of studies using auditory chimera technique, we have examined the relative importance of temporal envelope and <span class=SpellE>fne</span> structure for tone perception in normal-hearing listeners and patients with sensorineural hearing loss or with auditory neuropathy spectrum disorders (Xu and <span class=SpellE>Pfingst</span>, 2003; Wang S. et al., 2011, 2015). In collaboration with </span></span><a href="http://trhos.com/" target="_blank"><span style='mso-bookmark:Cochlear_implants'><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Beijing <span class=SpellE>Tongren</span> Hospital</span></span><span style='mso-bookmark:Cochlear_implants'></span></a><span style='mso-bookmark:Cochlear_implants'><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>, we have studied the tone perception and production in native tone-language speaking children implanted with cochlear implants (Xu et al., 2004; 2007; Han et al. 2007, 2009; Zhou and Xu, 2008; Zhou et al., 2008, 2013; Mao &amp; Xu, 2015) as well as their singing proficiency (Xu et al., 2009; Mao et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2019). </span></span><span style='mso-bookmark:Cochlear_implants'><span style='mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <span style='mso-bookmark:Cochlear_implants'></span> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:1;height:47.0pt'> <td style='padding:.75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;height:47.0pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=right style='text-align:right'><span style='mso-bookmark:Cochlear_implants'><span style='mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <span style='mso-bookmark:Cochlear_implants'></span> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:2;height:20.0pt'> <td style='padding:.75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;height:20.0pt'> <p><span style='mso-bookmark:Cochlear_implants'><b><span style='font-family: "Arial",sans-serif'>Speech perception:&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></b></span><span style='mso-bookmark:Cochlear_implants'><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif'>Using techniques, such as acoustic simulations of cochlear implants (vocoders), sine-wave speech replica, and auditory chimera, we study the relative contributions of spectral and temporal information in speech signals to speech recognition (e.g., Xu et al., 2002, 2005, 2007; Xu &amp; <span class=SpellE>Pfingst</span>, 2003, 2008; Feng et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2011, 2005; Kim et al., 2015; Xu, 2016; Qi et al., 2017; Wang &amp; Xu, 2020). </span></span></p> </td> <span style='mso-bookmark:Cochlear_implants'></span> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:3;height:20.0pt'> <td style='padding:.75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;height:20.0pt'> <p><span style='mso-bookmark:Cochlear_implants'>&nbsp;</span></p> <p><span style='mso-bookmark:Cochlear_implants'>&nbsp;</span></p> </td> <span style='mso-bookmark:Cochlear_implants'></span> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:4;height:53.0pt'> <td style='padding:.75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;height:53.0pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><span style='mso-bookmark:Cochlear_implants'><b><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Nonlinear frequency compression:&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></b></span><span style='mso-bookmark: Cochlear_implants'><span style='font-family:"Arial",sans-serif;mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"'>We evaluate the efficacy of nonlinear frequency compression implemented in contemporary digital hearing aids on speech recognition in Mandarin-speaking listeners (e.g., Mao et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2018; Chen et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2020). </span></span><span style='mso-bookmark:Cochlear_implants'><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <span style='mso-bookmark:Cochlear_implants'></span> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:5;mso-yfti-lastrow:yes;height:20.0pt'> <td style='padding:.75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;height:20.0pt'> <p align=right style='text-align:right'>&nbsp;</p> <p align=right style='text-align:right'>&nbsp;</p> </td> </tr> </table> </div> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <div class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-no-proof:yes'> <hr size=0 width="100%" noshade style='color:green' align=center> </span></div> <div align=center> <table class=MsoNormalTable border=0 cellpadding=0 width=556 style='width:417.0pt; 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